The primary concern of any house owner when he or she goes in for roof repairs is whether the contractor to whom they have awarded the contract is capable.

Is the contractor worthy of being given the responsibility for repairing the roof and other structures in the house? Does the claims which he makes as regards past repair and projects actually relate to his expertise in the field of repair. Can he be trusted? Is he qualified enough to suggest the replacement or repair of the roof? If you are plagued by these questions, then read on.

Whatever be your roofing repair or roof replacement needs, you need a qualified professional roofing contractor whom you can trust. This translates to finding a roofing contractor who knows good roofing practices. He must be aware of roof flashing details, on how to handle problem spots on building roofs and alternative roof covering products like shingle types,

grades, colors, low slope roofing, flat roofing materials, etc. A competent roofer will provide the client with sound advice on products, reasonable explanation of procedures, and, most importantly dependable results in the form of a strong and a durable roof.

It’s difficult to determine the capabilities and reliability of a contractor just on face value or when he or she approaches you with a printed brochure. In order to select a qualified contractor there are few steps which are advised to be taken so that the client who is getting the repairs done gets a fair deal. These include doing a market survey of available contractors and their market credentials, meeting members of the local councils to get their suggestions and then homing on to a manageable list of contractors whom you think can do the job for you. Based on referrals and your meetings, you need to make a checklist of people who qualify for your job. Arrange an interview with them and ask the following questions and try and get a satisfactory answer for each of them.

•Business Credentials from the contractor or his representative.
•Experience in roofing and their portfolio of recent work.
•Licensing or contract agreement with local government bodies.
•Insurance coverage of the contractor and their workers while working onsite for you. Some contractors also extend the insurance cover to the jobs that they are completing.
•Professional references from others in the field.
•Bank references and other credit related references.
•Company philosophy and ethics culture of the contractor.
•History of time line for completion of past projects.
•Knowledge about the material used in constructing the roof.
•Knowledge of the budgetary estimate for the job.
•Contractual agreements and availability of the copies of such agreements from past contracts.

Winter is almost upon us and that means the temperature is going to drop, resulting in higher heating bills and with all the talk about Carbon Footprints, Energy Efficiency and the recession, it is important that your roof is properly insulated.

Roof insulation is an important part of an energy efficient home for the obvious reason that it helps retain heat in your home for longer so you don’t have to turn the heating up, if at all.

An independent review was carried out recently titled “Thermal Insulation and its Role in Carbon Dioxide Reduction”. The key findings were very interesting.

It was recognised that thermal insulation can play a key role in the cost effective reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in Europe and save up to 350million tonnes per annum by 2010.

Retrofitting of un-insulated or poorly-insulated properties provides by far the biggest contribution to carbon dioxide savings and suggests that the targeting of retrofit programmes to those member states with average carbon dioxide emission rates above 0.5kg/Wh for power generation should be prioritised.

Insulation materials that can be most easily and efficiently retrofitted need to prioritised.

The key requirements listed above describe the properties of polyurethane spray foam. RoofSURE Ltd have been applying polyurethane spray foam to roofs across the UK for over 20 years, nobody has a better track record.

Spray foam roof insulation is four times stronger than fibre glass and if you choose this way to fix up your roof, you will not be disappointed. The foam roof insulation cannot be seen as it is applied to the underside of the tile to make sure it stays in place, so you don’t have to worry about an unattractive roof. There really isn’t a more effective or convenient method of insulating your roof.

RoofSURE’s polyurethane spray foam treatment is not only ideal for insulating roofs, it also strengthens roof structures making them able to withstand gale force winds. Another benefit of RoofSURE’s polyurethane spray foam treatment is that it stops leaking roofs and so avoids unnecessary damage while allowing the timbers to breathe.

So, if you’re looking to save money on your heating bills and do your bit for the environment, give RoofSURE a call and speak to them about their polyurethane spray foam roof insulation.

What could be better than installing tile shingles on your roof? Shingle roof tiles are durable, known to last over a century. It is unusual for homeowners to ever experience any problems with tiles unless they were installed incorrectly or your contractor used cheap, low quality tiles.  While you will spend more initially for tile roof shingles, over time they pay for themselves and are quite cost-effective.

Roofs made from tile shingles come with many advantages besides providing a beautiful exterior.  Problems like moss and algae are nonexistent since they can’t eat through the tiles as easily as with a wood shake roof. Repairs for shingle tiles are not as urgent compared to other materials. Tile roof shingles are extensive to install, so it is easier to simply repair any damaged tiles than replacing the entire roof.

Here are a few ways to avoid any issues with your English roof tiles:

Fixing and Replacing Broken Tiles
Shingle tiles can sometimes break or become damaged from extreme weather conditions like high winds or large hail. Improper installation or from being walked on can also cause your shingle roof tiles to break. When working on a roof of tile shingles, work on planks or a roof ladder. Walking directly on the tiles will cause them to break.

If the roof begins to lose English roof tiles for no apparent reason, it may be the fault of the roofer. Perhaps, they used the wrong nails or they just did a poor job.  Relaying all the shingle tiles with the correct nails is the only answer. Tiles can also sometimes be repaired with silicon sealant or adhesive.

Cleaning Debris
As with any type of roof maintenance, keep any overhanging trees cut back. This reduces shade and debris, reducing the growth of moss and algae and the buildup of debris. To reduce the growth of moss, fit some copper wire net to the ridgeline.  Water running over the copper reduces the amount of moss growing below it.

Tile Matching
Matching tile shingles on an older roof is a challenging project. Roof tile suppliers can sometimes carry a large inventory of salvaged shingle tiles. This is usually your best option. If you can’t find a decent match, you can take tiles from a less visible section of the roof and fill in the damaged area.  You can also have custom tile shingles manufactured, but it is expensive and getting an exact match is never guaranteed.

Hydroponics Systems, How do they Work? There are different types of hydroponic growing systems for supporting the plants. The plants require the nutrients & oxygen for the roots. Each type of hydroponic system has its own way of growing the plants which we shall discuss here.

The 7 main types of Hydroponics Systems are -

1. Hand Watering – This type of hydroponic system is very simple. One needs to mix the nutrient, perlite and coir to grow those plants in the container. One just needs to add plant food in the hand water. The containers stay moist since the mixture contains quite a bit of the water.

The pots have sphagnum peat as the base. This type of hydroponics growing systems is an easy home method that supports organics growth.

2. The Reservoir Method – One of the easiest among all the hydroponics systems of growing plants. In this method, a container will hold 2 inches of the nutrient solution. Several plants settle or sit in this nutrient solution.

An air pump is used to bubble in the nutrient solutions thus preventing the roots of the plants from drowning. Small holes are also made at the bottom of the plant pots giving some space for the roots to grow out of the nutrient solution.

This system is made to keep the light away from reaching the nutrient solution since the light allows the algae to grow. These algae will eat the nutrient that is mainly the feeder to the plants.

3. The Flood and drain Method – This is another type of hydroponics systems of growing plants. Here the plants are made to sit in their own containers that are again separated from the nutrient reservoir. A pump is used to turn on or off the amount of nutrient solution that will soak the plant roots. In this way the roots are not soaked but at the same time get the intake of the nutrient solution.

The growth of the plants also depends on how much we flood the container. Such systems are well suited for the growth produce in lava chips or straight perlite. Using a good hand pump fitted with a filter, this method is well suited for organic hydroponics.

4. Drip System – In this type the plants are also placed in their same traps and separated from the nutrient reservoir. Here a pump pushes the nutrient solution through small tubes & the plant gets feeder from the top. The drip can be controlled using emitters. Clay pellets are used for faster dripping whereas Rockwool could be used for slower dripping emitters.

But the disadvantage here is that emitters are known for clogging. Such problems are worse & maintenance or purchase of such systems needs lit of money. For those who want to do organic hydroponics, this type of hydroponics system is not advised.

5. The Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) – In such type of hydroponic systems, the plants are placed in the tray or container or gutter that is separated from the nutrient reservoir. One end of the tray is kept lower, this encourage the easier flow of water.

For a steady flow of water, a pump is used that creates a constant stream of nutrient solutions at the bottom of the tray. The water flows through the bottom of the tray. One must ensure that the root system of the plants is large enough to hang down into the flowing nutrient solution.

Nutrient film technique is a good choice for those homemade hydroponics gardeners and also for those interested for doing organic hydroponics growing system. The functionality, parts & design are very simple & one never finds any complaint of drip or clogs.

6. The Wick System – In this system, the plants are again in their own container separated from the nutrient reservoir. Pieces of nylon rope are partially buried in each plant container. The other end is allowed to dangle in the nutrient solution. In this way the nutrient solution is pulled from the reservoir to the growing medium.

This system is also good for organic hydroponics but one must consider few things here like there may be difficulty in achieving the right moisture level in a wick system. This happens due to that coir that sucks less water.

7. The Aeroponics Method – In these hydroponics growing systems, a large container will contain several gallons of nutrient solution in the bottom. A pump is used to push the nutrient solution through spray heads that will constantly soak every inch inside the container with a fine mist of nutrient solution.

The roots hang and grow mostly in air, except for the few that grow long enough to make it into the nutrient solution present in the bottom. A high-pressure pump is used here, and the spray emitters are designed to deliver a very fine, highly oxygenated spray.

Residential roofing from time to time needs maintenance or repair to get the longest life possible out of your roof. Addressing issues such as leaks or missing shingles, right away will help keep the cost of repair down. Unattended leaks can cause significant structural water damage that will eventually begin to affect ceilings and walls. This is where repair becomes quite expensive. Early detection is vital to a successful repair. Most repairs can be done in less than a day so that your household can return to normal activity within a reasonable amount time. Get with a reputable roofing company to handle your residential roofing issues.   

Commercial Roof Repair is definitely not a project you should attempt yourself. Just like a residential roof, early detection is vital to prolonging the longevity of the roof and keeping the cost of repair down. A leaky roof can cause water damage to the structure as well as products stored inside. It is important to do a little research when it is time to hire a roof repair contractor. A reputable contractor will be able to present certification and licensing when asked. Also, a contractor should be able to answer questions without hesitation or guessing. Remember, if it sounds to good to be true, it probably is.

A Commercial Flat Roof is common for commercial and industrial buildings. Installation and repair is quite easy for a reputable commercial flat roof contractor. Most flat roofs are rubber coated. Rubber coating is durable, weather tight and can handle climate change relatively well. Flat roof coating can be applied in one day. Be sure to talk with your contractor to help you decide which type of coating is best suited for your commercial or industrial building.

If you are looking for information or looking to hire an extremely skilled contractor visit the West Palm Beach Roofing Company web site.

Hale-stones, thunder-storms, freezing rains and tropical downpours are only a few of the natural challenges that can damage your Atlanta roof. And because a lot of roofs in Atlanta are old, the damages caused by Atlanta’s infamous weather become even more pronounced. With this in mind, we cannot stress enough the importance of your Atlanta roofing’s proper maintenance.

Some other problems with old Atlanta roofing are poor air-flow within the roof and the attic, lack of drains, use of sub-standard roofing materials and other poor design standards all add up to a high probability of major roof damage and, eventually, very expensive repairs. If you are living in an old Atlanta house right now, you might want to start repairs on your old Atlanta roof now, before the infamous weather conditions in Atlanta takes its toll on your already fragile roof.

However, there are a lot of things you should be considering first before you start rushing off to get your roof repaired. You, first, have to decide on what Atlanta roofing materials would be most fitting for your roof.

Atlanta roofing stores provide many different materials for your Atlanta roof; but that would also mean differences in costs. Shingle roofing material for your Atlanta roof, for instance, would cost between $3,000 to $14,000, including the cost of installation; with other Atlanta roofing materials priced even higher.

After selecting your Atlanta roofing material, you, now, have to consider how long the repairs and installation would take. If you decide to install shingle roofing materials to your Atlanta roof, it will probably take anywhere from 3 days to 3 weeks for an Atlanta roofing contractor to complete the job. The type of materials you choose for your Atlanta roof will also determine just how swiftly an Atlanta roofing contractor can repair your roof when necessary.

Always ask yourself how you want your Atlanta roof to look like; how quickly you will need your roof done if it will undergo repairs; and what your budget is. Research on your Atlanta roofing needs first, before calling a roof Atlanta contractor. A good place to start your search for answers is the internet. After that, you could ask some trusted friends or relatives to recommend a reputable Atlanta roofing contractor for you. But no matter how you decide to go about this, get your Atlanta roof in top shape as soon as you can.

Roof Installation involves the construction of a roof from scratch. The roof may be for a home, business, barn, garage or shed. Roof Installation is a physically tasking job. Not just anybody can install a roof. It is best to hire a reputable contractor who is licensed, certified and insured. A legitimate contractor should be able to present documentation stating that they do have these particular credentials. They should also be able to answer any question you may have without hesitation or guessing. New roof installation includes new ply wood, tar paper, shingles, flashing and roof vents. Most roofing contractors can have an installation project done in one day with weather permitting.

Roof Replacement is done when a homeowner realizes a roofing issue or when it is time for replacement due to age. In general, a roof replacement project involves stripping off all the old materials and performing any structural damage repair as needed. If you have had a previous contractor initially install your roof, you would want to look over the bill of sale for some type of warranty. This is important because if you roof is in need of replacement before the warranty is void, the replacement project could cost little to nothing to have done. All reputable contractors offer some sort of warranty with a roof installation. Be sure to tell your contractor every little detail when describing your roofing needs so that they can assist you better as well as leave nothing to chance.

Roof Repair is a cost effective way to solve some roofing issues such as leaks, missing shingles, or storm damage. Cost will vary according to the difficulty and the type of material you roof is constructed of. However, roof repair is only a temporary fix and does not guarantee that the real cause of a roof leak is addressed. Roof repair is centered on a particular issue. This process does not involve stripping the old material and replacing it with new. Some repair only involves replacing a few shingles or simply reapplying a seal around flashing. Though roof repair is cost effective at first, it can become costly after several repairs and in the end you may have spent the same if not more for a roof replacement. Remember roof repair is for small issues and is temporary which usually comes with no warranty like a replacement. Long story short, roof repair can buy you a little time to save money so that you can get the right service you need to completely address your roofing issues.

If you are looking for more information or looking to hire a reputable contractor, visit the Austin Roofing Contractors web site.

Introduction

It has been viewed by some Eurocentric writers that pre-colonial West African economy was stagnant, subsistence and that it lacked real market status before British colonization. This argument stems from some anthropological perceptions (substantivist stand point) that the main sector of this economy was basically subsistence agriculture, which had been made stagnant as a result of application of simple technology without organized specialization. Production target is said to ensure human existence with little or no exchange as a result of limited output1. To this view, simple and non-industrial region, such as pre-colonial West African societies lacked certain necessary prerequisite for market economy and as such economic terms and theories should not be applied to explain their economic structure2.

The study therefore intends to unravel the pre-colonial Nigerian indigenous economy both in scope and structure and attempts to establish that it was dynamic and that it possessed real market status of high standard, given its characteristics. The study is divided into three major segments – general features of an economic system, structure of pre-colonial Nigerian economy and justification of pre-colonial Nigerian economy as a dynamic and market oriented economy. A market economy is the one in which decision-making is decentralized, that is market issues are mainly determined by market forces; that is, demand and supply. This is unlike command economy in which decision making is decentralized and controlled by an authority 3. In every economic system, there are three basic economic functions, no matter the nature, type and level of the government or economy4. These are, what and how much to be produced, how will it be produced, and for whom will it be produced. These implies that every economic system takes care of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Every economy system is tied to a political system through which people decide what their society desires.

A vital role of any economic system is co-ordination. It must see that individuals’ decisions about what they do are co-ordinated with the society’s wants and with what other individuals do. This co-ordination also includes, moral, social and political values, an economic integration which ensures that what an individual wants will not exceed what are available in the society5. This partly explains why there is no economic system that can easily operate successfully outside the socio-cultural context of its indigenous environment.

Given this background, it would be gainful to examine the structure and scope of pre-colonial Nigerian economy. The main spring and life-wire of any society are mostly referred to as its economic and human potentials. Nigeria does not take exception to this universal rule. The kingdoms, states and empires that existed in pre-colonial Nigeria were great and prosperous not only because of their sound socio-political institutions, but also as a result of the natural resources such as bountiful agriculture, trade and crafts. A close observation of the Nigerian terrain and climate reveals the diversity of its natural potentials which gave rise to economic viability and a variety of occupations. The structure of pre-colonial Nigerian economy rested basically and extensively on the nature of vegetation, household labour and the main components being agricultural activities, crafts, trade, and its transportation system.

Agriculture          

Agriculture is a primordial economic activity in Nigeria which formed the means of livelihood of the peoples and a strong factor for the rise of states and empires just as the case everywhere in the world. From the words of Evans – Pritchards “the first evolution that transformed human economy gave man control over his own food supply, man began to plant, cultivate and improve by selection of edible grasses, roots, and trees”6. This economic advancement has been described as “neolitic revolution”. Like in modern time, in pre-colonial Nigeria , a major determining factor for the choice of settlement was availability of favourable climate, free of epidemics, fertile land suitable for cultivation and grazing, congenial littoral environment for fishing and security such as absence of war and other natural and supernatural disasters. When these factors were lacking, people resorted to migration in search of comfortably habitable areas. Considering these phenomena, the reasons for shifting cultivation in planting in agriculture, normadism in grazing and itinerancy in fishing could be understood. In other words, ecological factors play decisive roles in human settlement7.

The form of agriculture practised and the crops planted were determined by the nature of soil and the terrain of the region. Shifting cultivation and crop rotation characterized agricultural practices in pre-colonial Nigeria , owing primarily to land tenure practice and lack of knowledge of highly mechanized farming. There were natural problems such as erosion, drought, pests and diseases. These problems were tackled locally, depending on individual communities. For instance, traps were set to catch birds and destructive animals in the farms and gutters were also dug to drain away water in order to check flood. Wetting of farms during drought had been an ancient agricultural practice among Nigerians. All these practices were not necessarily influenced by conservation as viewed by some western observers but the most effective and correct maintenance of soil fertility and assessment of the prevailing economic situation of the period8

In pre-colonial Nigeria , farmers depended on implements such as digging stick, hoe, cutlass and sickles. The common crops produced based on territorial specialization included, yam, okra, vegetables, maize, cocoyam, cassava, plantains, bananas, kolanuts and oil palm9. The independent growth and antiquity of agriculture in Africa and Nigeria in particular has been strongly proved by some African economic historians. Among them was Murdock, an ethnographer who argued that agriculture began in the upper Niger area among the Mende-speaking peoples in about 5000BC10 basing his research on yam cultivation in this region. While one cannot doubt the great antiquity of agriculture in Nigeria , we must, on the same note not rule out the possibility of cultivation of yams or other crops earlier than or around the period, (5000BC), in other parts of Nigeria . It is interesting to note that the diffusionist theory and hamitic hypothesis which tend to hold that all developments in Africa are imported have been proved wrong by the nature of agricultural development in the sub-regions11. While it is undeniable that some crops were introduced from other areas to Nigeria , it is evident that agriculture in Nigeria developed naturally and independently without foreign mechanism12. Whatever that was later introduced to it was supplementary to the existing system.

FISHING, HUNTING AND PASTORALISM

Fishing                                            

Fishing is an ancient economic activity in Nigeria . Its activities cover both the coastal and inland waterways and it was of tremendous economic value to the pre-colonial Nigerians13. Fish was one of the major articles among Nigerian commodities of trade. Fish of various kinds were either dried in the sun or smoked in order to preserve them for long or short distance market14. Fresh fish were said to be marketed mostly in short distance areas owing to the perishable nature and problem of storage facility. Professional fishing is characterized by craftsmanship and special skills, such as boat, canoe, paddle, float, buoy and net construction coupled with invention of a variety of indigenous fishing techniques and gear. Fishing in pre-colonial Nigeria till date engenders migration as many of its practitioners would have to leave their original settlements for better prospects elsewhere15. Fishing of the migratory type was very prominent among the Ilaje, Izon, Itsekiri, Efik, Jukun, Ijebu, Awori etc. From the pre-colonial period to date, the Ilaje are said to have been the most migratory, famous and professional both in inland and deep sea- fishing not only in Nigeria but in West and Central Africa16 . Around the early 16th century, fishing is said to be practised with rudimentary techniques and tools such as raffia materials, wood, and grasses ad with very limited scope17. By the late 18th century to early 19th century, most Nigerian fishermen had started developing improved fishing gear and techniques such as clapnets, castnets, ita, egho, asuren, ojijon, agada, ighee, iyanma, ekobi ufo, riro, 18 etc. Nigerian fishing economy was in this progressive stage of development on the eve of British colonization.

  Hunting                  

Hunting could be regarded as one of the earliest economic activities in pre-colonial Nigeria . It was very significant because, many people depended on it for economic survival at a stage of economic development. However, as time went on, hunting became a relevant supplement to agriculture19. Hunting in Nigeria during this period was of various levels. At lower level, hunting included setting of snares for birds, young animals, such as squirrels, monkeys, grass cutters, alligators, etc. Another level was hunting for larger animals such as crocodile, elephant, wild pig, antelope, etc. It was and perhaps, still, a belief in most local communities in Nigeria that hunting, especially at higher level, apart from special skills involves the use of charms and possession of supernatural powers20. Hunting was a reliable source of meat and animals skin for cloth, shoe and drum making. In addition to its economic value, it was a means by which foot paths and settlements were created before the advent of the European mode of road construction and town settlement. Consequently, these paths and hamlets later developed into roads, towns and villages. Hunters served as security agents by protecting people from attack of enemies or wild animals. Hunters also supplied animals and their special parts which have medicinal value among indigenous medicine practitioners21. Supplementary to hunting was fruit gathering. Collection of variety of fruits from the forest was an economic venture by some people, especially women in the pre-colonial Nigerian societies. Fruits and spices are important for food and herbal medicine hence, their demand was and is still high till date in Nigerian local market places22.

Pastoralism               

This was another economic practice in pre-colonial Nigeria . This is the rearing of animals, especially cattle, goats and sheep in commercial quantity by moving from one fertile land to another. As a result of infestation of the forest region by tsetse fly and scarcity of open land in the south, couple with the marshy nature of the plains, presence of rivers and creeks in the coastal region and the presence of open land in the north, pastoralism was mostly practised by the Fulani in the savanna region of northern Nigeria22. Both pastoralism and hunting are related to crop farming since they all directly and indirectly deal with animals. Though, mixed farming was not widespread, some form of symbiosis existed between the crop farmers and the postoralists. For instance, the droppings of the cattle formed manure to the soil which in turn supported the growth of crops while the postoralists depended on food crops of the farmers. Moreover, the production of cattle was a source of beef for the forest dwellers, the leather workers demanded the skin for production of shoes, bags, shield for war, quivers for arrow, harness for horses23 etc. Kano in northern Nigeria was famous for such skills. Pastoral activities were of immense economic value in pre-colonial Nigeria .     

Crafts     

A discussion of the development of crafts among pre-colonial Nigerians requires a description of their arts and industries at various levels. The major arts and craft works in which Nigerians were famous included; salt extraction, soap production, metal work, woodwork and weaving activities. This enormous development reminds us of the extent to which indigenous technology had progressed in Nigeria in pre-colonial period. It is evident that iron technology had developed considerably in pre-colonial Nigeria and this revolutionalized crafts and manufactures in Nigeria and indeed Africa24 .

Salt production was one of the mineral extractions, which was not available in most areas, but an important locally needed product and an import commodity of foreign merchants25. In pre-colonial Nigeria , production of salt at large quantity was naturally restricted to the coastal areas owing to the availability of raw material such as salt water. The method of production was by evaporation of seawater either by boiling or sunning. Among the coastal settlers in Nigeria, especially the Ilaje, Itsekiri and Ijaw, the process was by collecting seawater in a large clay pot, cooked it till it was dry, leaving white and solid substance at the bottom. This would be scooped, using a small basket to filter the dirt26. What remained was salt which could be to a large extent free of impurities. This industrial activity enhanced the growth of trade between the coastal and inland dwellers in pre-colonial Nigeria . In the inland region too, salt is said to be produced in perhaps relatively small quantity especially among the Jukun of the Benue region and the Igbo of the eastern Nigeria27.

Closely related to this pre-colonial economic venture was soap production. This was predominantly carried out by the Nigerian forest region settlers. The major raw materials for soap production were palm oil and ashes. These would be boiled together and molded28. In pre-colonial Nigeria for instance, various kinds of soap were produced. In addition to domestic and commercial purposes, soap also had medicinal value29. The Ose dudu (black soap) among the Yoruba for instance, is still used up to date for these purposes. Two important aspects of pre-colonial Nigeria crafts which deserve attention in this study are metal and woodwork. A careful study of the Nigerian history would reveal that, of all crafts, iron working was most significant to the overall economic and political development in pre-colonial period. The iron age was the period in which Nigerians started to actively dominate and control their environments. The discovery of iron gave rise to the manufacturing of iron tools such as hoes, knives, cutlasses, spears, axes and these influenced higher productivity in crafts, farming, fishing and hunting30. Apart from the economic revolution brought about by iron smelting, it also equipped most leaders with higher and stronger political power. For instance, the possession of iron weapons influenced military growth and subjugation of weaker communities by stronger ones31. The introduction of iron to Nigeria gave rise to black smithing all over the region. The earliest proof of iron smelting in West Africa was Nok, a village in central Nigeria , northeast of the Niger confluence and the Benue Rivers and southwest of Jos Pleateau32. The Yoruba , Igbo (especially Awka people) and Uneme (in Benin ) were famous in iron smelting technology in pre-colonial era. The Uneme, for instance, are said to have developed black smithing before C1370 and iron is said to have played important commercial role as it was used as a medium of exchange (native currency)33. An important mineral production in pre-colonial Nigeria was gold. Gold was mined, consumed locally and exported. It has more economic value than other products, as it was mainly an article of foreign exchange earning34. In the pre-colonial period, Benin and Ile-Ife were famous for bronze casting and reputable centers of tin production existed in Jos Plateau and that of zinc in the lower Niger and Benue Rivers35. It is however important to note that production was hampered by high level of wood artistry of symbolic cultural value. Ife and Benin had been regarded as the most famous among west African states in the use of brass and bronze. In skill, quality and beauty, the antique bronzes of Benin is said to have equalled those produced in any part of the world­43. It was once claimed by some Nigerian writers that both the Nigerian art of bronze casting and its use to portray natural figures of  humans and animals was imported by Europeans, either by legitimacy or through smuggling. If this was real, it would indicate that Nigerian art had already reached an admirable and enviable status of world standard before the advent of the imported art. The vital view to be accepted here is that, although European imports of brass and bronze supplemented Nigerian artistic output, much  Nigerian works in these alloys predated the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century44. Studies have shown that naturalistic figures had been found in the Chad region in the So burial sites before the 15th century. Also, early peoples not known to have worked in bronze and brass had produced similar figures in other media. The ancient Nok people for instance, produced replicas of human heads and animals of high artistic merit and value as well as stylized motifs in wood, clay, gold, and ivory45. Trade and transport system were equally germane to the growth and development of pre-colonial Nigerian economy. The Nigerian peoples had organized both regional and inter-regional trade based on regional specialization of production which implies the practice of the principle of comparative cost advantage. They developed local transportation system of the use of land (head portage) and water ways (canoes) and some forms of media of exchange, such as barter, Manilla, brass, iron, copper and cowry shells46. The various states, empires or kingdoms in pre-colonial Nigeria developed to prominence as a result of organized trade and relatively good means of transportation. Organization of market during this period was largely influenced by the bountiful agricultural and non-agricultural production of the peoples. As a result of variety of supply of commodities to market places, there was departmentalization of goods, orderliness and periodic market system in Nigerian states such as pre-colonial Yoruba society47. However, poor transportation system hindered mobility, production and distribution of goods and services to some extent. It could be argued that since production was beyond family consumption and there was exchange of inter-regional level based on territorial specialization, the pre-colonial Nigerian economy was therefore beyond subsistence level. It has equally been argued that the organization of the trans-Saharan and trans-Atlantic trade in which Nigeria was an active participant was international in outlook48. It has been opined by some western economists that factors of production were not well-co-ordinated and that there was no division of labour or specialization in pre-colonial Nigerian economy. This appears spurious and misleading. In the African traditional society, males and females are intrinsically assigned to different special socio-economic duties in which each sex would excel (sexual division of labour). Specialization was admittedly applicable to many aspects of Nigerian economic activities. For instance, the coastal dwellers who specialized in fishing took net mending as an area of specialization, while some people specialized in deep sea fishing (Oko-Ota or Ade-Odo), others were skillful in inland or fresh water fishing (eremi). In both areas of fishing activities, there were still many departments of special skills49. There is a saying among the Yoruba fishing people of the Niger Delta, “Oghomayi emayi” (specialization and skill vary from one person to another). This shows the extent to which specialization and skill acquisition was acknowledged in some pre-colonial Nigerian societies. Labour was very crucial in the production process and free labour was more economical hence, pre-colonial Nigerians recruited labour through their wives, children, slaves and relatives. In some cases, supply of labour was through communal assistance. One tenable reason for marriage of many wives among Nigerian men was to secure adequate, cheap and steady supply of labour. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Nations affirms “a numerous family of children, instead of being a burden was a source of opulence and prosperity to the parents”50. This strongly reinforces the economic philosophy of African practice of polygany. Land tenure system was practised to suit socio-economic requirements of the period. Admittedly, land was plentiful in relation to the Nigerian population51. Capital was raised through personal savings, borrowing from friends, relatives, co-operatives (egbe or esusu) or from family or community coffer. A vital factor in the structure of pre-colonial Nigerian economy was entrepreneurship. This is an important factor of production in any economy at any time. It would be gainful to look into what an entrepreneur is in order to ascertain if pre-colonial Nigerians actually merited the quality. Some think of entrepreneurship primarily as innovators, others think of them chiefly as managers of enterprises, others again place major emphasis on their function as mobilizers and allocators of capital52. Hosetitz further argued that an entrepreneur is a business leader, who guides the action of a private productive enterprise and who makes the crucial decisions on the use of productive factors on their remuneration on the nature and style of commodities or services to be produced, and on the timing and other aspects of the production and marketing process53. In the pre-colonial Nigeria , as in other parts of the world, other factors of production such as capital, land and labour were effectively organized and utilized for production. It therefore follows that all factors of production which existed would not be useful without entrepreneurs. The pre-colonial Nigerian entrepreneurs were rulers, chiefs, potentates, war chiefs, and other influential men and women who had enough wealth and power to mobilize other factors of production54. For instance, the Kano potentates organized the production of leather works, the Ijebu chiefs organized production of textiles, the Ilaje chiefs organized fish production, Ikale chiefs also organized production of farm crops. Madam Tinubu of Egbaland and Efunsetan of Ibadan also were among the notable women that organized slaves in their farms55. Distributions of goods were also made by Nigerian entrepreneurs by organizing long and short distance market bilaterally and multi-laterally within and outside their regions. While it can be argued that most of the economic institutions and principles found in the industrial societies have their equivalence in non-industrial or simple societies such as pre-colonial Nigeria , it is still essential to note that, the factors of production and other elements in the structure of pre-colonial Nigerian economy such as agriculture and crafts had their peculiarities. Therefore, in order to make the work of economic historian and economist more meaningful to their audience, careful selection and application of relevant economic terms and principles are imperative.   Conclusion Given the general features and myriads of sub-sectoral components of pre-colonial Nigerian economy, it is convincing that the economy was progressive in growth and responsive to innovation before colonization by Britain in the late 19th century. The study has shown that, pre-colonial Nigerian economy was a traditional African economic system in which production depended largely on families, communal efforts and professional groups or guilds. It should be noted that this traditional economic system, which can be referred to as “communalism” was intrinsically practised similarly in different autonomous regions of the geographical expression later known as Nigeria . As a scientific analysis which relates to value-free nature of enquiry, the positivist stand-point reinforces the claim that, pre-colonial Nigerian economy was dynamic and market-oriented. It is the position of this economic philosophy that, the fundamental economic problem in any society, irrespective of place and point in history, is to provide a set of rules for channeling competition and resolving conflict among individuals who cannot satisfy all their wants given the constraints of scarcity. It has been argued by Roger Leroy for instance, that the aim of production throughout ages in the world remains the same and that human behaviours towards economic issues are universally similar56. All these fundamental economic rules are said to be embedded in a framework of formal societal institutions such as laws and customs. The specific function of every economic system in any society would be, to take care of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in order to create utility57. Pre-colonial Nigerian economy would not therefore, be an exception to these universal rules and principles. This study has in the light of these features demonstrated that pre-colonial Nigerian economy was dynamic, progressive and market-oriented.                   NOTES AND REFERENCES 1.                A detailed discussion and critique of the substantivist and formalist views could be found in zeleza J. A, Modern Economic History of Africa Vol. 1 ( Senegal : CODESTRIA) 1993 Pp 15 –16. 2.                See A. G Hopkins , An Economic History of West Africa: London : Longman, 5 –9. 3.                Roger Leroy Miller, Economics Today, New York : Harper Collins College Publishers, 1996, 122. 4.                Roger Leroy, Economics Today, P. 122. 5.                David C. Colander, Economics: Irwin Burr Ridge Sillinois Boston , Massachusetts Sydney , Australia 1994, 60 – 62. 6.                G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, Peoples and Empires of West Africa, ( Hong Kong : Thomas Nelson, 1971, 158. 7.                S. W Wooldridge and W. G East, The Spirit and Purpose of Geography: London, Hutchinson & Co Publishers, 1951, 23 –24. 8.                See Ogunremi G. O “The Structure of Pre-colonial Economy” P 16. 9.                Ogunremi, “The Structure of Pre-colonial Economy”     P 16. 10.           G. P Murdock, Africa, Its Peoples and Their Culture History: London , 1959, P 64. 11.           G. O. Ogunremi, P 15. 12.           G. O. Ogunremi, P 15. 13.           Ehinmore, O.M “Fishing in South-Western Nigeria in the 19th Century: A Study of the Ilaje Fishing Economy” AAU African Studies Review, Lagos , First Academic Publishers, Vol. 1, No 1, 2002, 56. 14.           See G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, People and Empires of West Africa , Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson, 1971, P 159. 15.           Ayodeji Olukoju: “Fishing, Migrations and Inter-group Relations in the Gulf of Guinea ( Atlantic Coast of West Africa ) in the 19th and 20th Centuries” Itinerario, Vol. XXV, European Journal of Overseas History P 70. 16.           Ayodeji Olukoju, P 70. 17.           Interviews held with Kalejaye Eniola, fisherman, about 85yrs, at Odonla, 20/5/2006 . 18.           Ehinmore, Omorele M. “A History of Fishing in Ondo State , 1950 – 1997: A Case Study of the Ilaje Coastal Area” (M. A Thesis, University of Lagos , 1998), 19-24. 19.           See G. O. Ogunremi, “The Structure of Pre-colonial Economy” 20. 20.           Interview held with Ariyo Odegbemi, hunter, 92yrs, at Erinje, 10/5/2006 . 21.           Ariyo Odegbemi gave detailed value of various kinds of animals and their special parts in preparation of traditional medicine before and even after the introduction of orthodox medicine. 22.           Interview held with Ariyo Odegbemi. 23.           G. O. Ogunremi, P 21. 24.           Bassey W Andah, Nigerians Indigenous Technology, (Ibadan, Ibadan University Press, 1992), Pp 1-4. 25.            See G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, P 159. 26.           Interview held with Edema Mejebi, at Warri, 16/6/2006 , 94yrs, an old trader and fisherman. This fact was reinforced by Ehinmore Ajao, a palace historian and an old musician, 10/6/2006 , about 82yrs interviewed at Mahin. 27.           A. E Afigbo, “Economic Foundations of Pre-colonial Igbo Society” in I. A Akinjogbin and S. O Osoba (eds), Topics on Nigerian Economic and Social History (Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press, 1980), P 15. 28.           G. T. Stride, C. Ifeka, P 159. 29.           See Interview held with Ariyo Odegbemi, 10/5/2006 . 30.           Dennis Williams: “An Outline History of Tropical African Art” in Joseph C. A Nene and Godfrey Brown (eds), Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (Ibadan: University Press, 1966), Pp 60-65. 31.           Nene and Godfrey Brown, P 60. 32.           Thurston Shaw, “The Pre-history of West Africa” in J. E Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder (eds), History of West Africa, (London: Longman 1971), P 69. 33.           See Dennis Williams, “An outline History of Tropical African Art”, in African in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, P. 65. 34.           G. O. Ogunremi, P. 22. 35.           G. T Stride, and C. Ifeka, P. 161. 36.           G. T. Stride, and C. Ifeka P. 101. 37.           Richard and Jon Lander, Journal of the expedition to Explore the course and Termination of the Niger , ( London : 1932), 197. 38.           G. T Stride, and C. Ifeka, P. 159. 39.           N. A.I, Ilaje Intelligence Report, Ondo Province , by R. J. M. Curwen, file No O. D 119, 1937, P 35. 40.           Interview held with Fibilia Majofodun, at Ereke, 12/6/206, about 80yrs, a fish trader and mat weaver. 41.           Dennis Williams, P 70. 42.           See Bassey, W. Andah for detailed explanation of Nigerian Building Technology, Pp 55-70. 43.           G. T Stride, and C. Ifeka, P 160. 44.           Stride and Ifeka, P 160. 45.           Stride and Ifeka, P 160. 46.           Toyin Falola, “Trade and Market in Pre-colonial Economy” in G. O Ogunremi and E. K Faluyi (eds), An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750, Pp 61-71. 47.           I. A. Akinjogbin, “The Economic Foundations of the Oyo Empire” in I. A Akinjogbin and S. O Osoba (eds),        Topics on Nigerian Economic and Social History, Ife : University of Ife Press , 1980, Pp 35-42. 48.           E. E Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of Nilotic People, Oxford , 1940, P 77. 49.           See detailed discussion of different areas of specialization in fishing in O. M. Ehinmore, “Fishing in Southwestern Nigeria in the 19th century: A study of the Ilaje Fishing Economy” Pp 58-62. 50.           Adam Smith, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: London , 1901, Book 1, P. 29, cited in G. O Ogunremi and E. K Faluyi, An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750, P 34. 51.           G. O. Ogunremi, “Traditional Factors of Production in Pre-colonial Economy in G. O Ogunremi and E. K Faluyi (eds), An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750, P 33. 52.           Bert F. Hoselitz, “The Development of African Entrepreneurs” in E. F Jackson (ed), Economic Development of Africa, Oxford, 1965, P 86. Cited in An Economic History of West Africa since 1750. 53.           Hoselitz: “The Development of African Entrepreneurs” P. 87. 54.           G. O Ogunremi, “Traditional Factors of Production”      P. 39. 55.           G. O. Ogunremi, P. 40. 56.           Roger Leroy Miller, Economics Today, P. 122. 57.           Roger Leroy Miller, P. 122. 

Owning a home is just the beginning. There are regular upkeeps and maintenance that ensure that your home not only looks beautiful all the time but is also secure from internal damage and external weathering. Home repair is an exhausting and challenging proposition for homeowners. Especially if you are totally new to the task.

As a result, the long list of tasks to be delivered within a short span of time can be quite unnerving. Most the times some minor tasks are overlooked leading to further damages. This hampers the job even further. A ready list of ‘KNOW HOW’ before the next session of home repair can act as quick tips to help you get the job done easier and better.

Dos -

1.Go through a quick inspection of your building or apartment. Maintain a checklist of the areas that have to be repaired. Always invite the home inspection officer a few weeks ahead for consulting and thorough inspection. It would help to identify the problems areas before home repair.

2.A lot of time the DIY technique helps to save your valuable resources. It includes activities cleaning, waxing, remodeling of furniture and floors. Even issues like painting, redesigning the rooms and gardening can be accomplished without any professional help.

3.Always check whether your home insurance covers the cost of accidents and home repair costs. Only a few banks and mortgage firms provide additional loans for home repairs. Often the home insurance provider cover gardens as well as your home office contents.

4.It very important to check with the homebuilders and home improvement firms before signing a contract. Consult your real estate attorney regarding the legal details of the working terms and conditions.

5.Always opt for the builders and home repair service providers who cover an annual maintenance and repair. It is done over minimal fees that can be repaid within no time by the home loans. Always remember to renew the service contract with your home improvement firm.

Don’ts -

6.Never assign the task to a home improvement firm outside the territorial or zonal builders. You would be breaking the laws.

7.You must hire professional help for specialized technical home improvement tasks like plumbing, wiring, gas lines, roof repairing and brickwork. When comes to installing your fireplace or repairing the electric geysers never rely solely on that do-it-yourself tendency. Neglecting serious cable wires or that plug on the kitchen sink may cause further accidents.

8.Do not ever tie-up with any contractors or builders outside a working contract. Do check about the background of the company.

9.Never forget to ask your home insurance provider the details of the contents insured. An ideal home insurance would provide the costs of home repair. It should include your house and its fixtures, fittings, garages, bicycles. Some of the companies would even provide you with insurance for the tennis court, swimming pools, bathtubs, gates, walls, patios, driveways, walks and fences. Most often the insurance firms are not willing to cover such objects. But with the monetary funds from mortgage and home loans it becomes convenient to pay for home repair.

10.Never sign any legal documents regarding work contract before scrutinizing.

And most importantly — planning plays a crucial role. It becomes necessary to discuss the details and the schedule with all members of the family before conducting any home repair activity. This will add to the comprehensiveness and reduce the need for change later.

Many people still don’t understand the importance of a properly insulated roof and let their roofs get into all sorts of states before doing anything about it.

Roof insulation, as the name suggests, insulates your roof keeping the warmth in and the cold out during the winter, and the cool air in and the warm air our during the summertime. A properly insulated roof will save you money on your heating bills as you won’t have to keep the heating on to compensate for the warmth that escapes through your roof.

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There are a number of different types of roof insulation, but the type that has been proven to be the best is foam spray insulation. The reason for this is that foam spray insulation does so much more than just keep the heat in and the cold out; foam spray insulation protects your roof from external damage caused by rain, wind and snow.

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